Written by Sandra Diaferia, short-term at OCC Greece.
When discussing migration concerning Turkey, the focus often turns to the EU-Turkey Agreement. However, it’s essential to recognize that Turkish history encompasses not only in-migration and transit migration but it also plays a significant role as a territory of emigration, particularly throughout the 20th century. Indeed, Turkey played a crucial role as the origin of substantial post-World War II labour migration to Europe (Kaya A., 2023).
“The movement was started by a major labour recruitment treaty signed with West Germany in 1961, as well as a smaller deal with the United Kingdom that same year. Those arrangements were followed by similar agreements throughout the 1960s and 1970s with, in order, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Sweden, Australia, Switzerland, and Denmark, concluding in 1981 with Norway’’
(Kaya A., 2023).
The consequences of this migration were far-reaching, particularly in the establishment of the Turkish diaspora. By 2023, over 5 million individuals of Turkish ancestry were residing in EU Member States, with Germany alone hosting over 3 million (Kaya A., 2023).
However, since the onset of the Syrian crisis, Turkey has shouldered the responsibility of hosting the world’s largest refugee population, owing to its strategic geographic location bridging Europe and Asia. By 2022, the country provided temporary protection to 3.7 million Syrians, along with over 320,000 refugees and asylum-seekers receiving international protection (UNHCR, 2022). Many individuals in transit choose to remain in Turkey for extended periods, evidenced by the proficiency in Turkish language exhibited by numerous asylum seekers, including entire families residing in camps like Nea Kavala. This underscores the protracted nature of human mobility, wherein irregular migrants may experience prolonged stays spanning years (Papadopoulou-Kourkoula, 2008).
Nonetheless, the challenges facing migrants in Turkey intensified following the devastating earthquakes that struck southeastern Turkey in February 2023, profoundly impacting the lives of millions, including asylum seekers.
Lately, additionally, asylum seekers from African countries have decided to reach Turkey, instead of crossing the Sahara Desert, the dangerous Libya and Tunisia, and the Mediterranean Sea. For instance, a former student from Sudan travelled to Somalia and then took a plane to Turkey. This shift aligns with Turkey’s aspirations to enhance its regional influence, as policymakers have facilitated visa-free travel agreements with neighbouring and nearby countries. Since 2005, Turkey has forged such agreements with nations like Jordan, Lebanon, Russia, and Syria, among others (Kaya A., 2023).
Regarding Syrian refugees, the Turkish government has extended temporary protection to them since the outbreak of the civil war in 2022, as stipulated in regulation 2014, allowing for an indefinite duration of stay (Kaya A., 2023). However, the reality starkly contrasts with official policy: the Turkish government’s stance towards Syrians is increasingly hostile, with many being labelled as terrorists. Despite this, Syria-related commercial activities thrive in Turkey. This discord between official rhetoric and practical treatment is evident in the deportation of numerous Syrians from the country (former resident volunteer, personal communication, 2023).
“It is better not to have the documents with you, otherwise the police deport you”
(former resident volunteer, personal communication, 2023).
Figure 4: Foreign Nationals Residing in Turkey, by Country of Citizenship and Gender. (Turkish Statistical Association (TÜİK), 2023, The World’s Leading Refugee Host, Turkey Has a Complex Migration History)
Note: Data do not include Syrians under temporary protection or individuals with visas or residence permits valid for durations of less than three months.
Turkey’s refugee response operates within a comprehensive legal framework established by the Law of Foreigners and International Protection (2013) and the Temporary Protection Regulation (2014) (UNHCR, 2022). The former marked a significant milestone as Turkey’s first domestic law governing asylum practices following the ratification of the 1951 Refugee Convention (Kaya A., 2023).
While the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) has been pivotal in the refugee determination process, Turkish authorities initially lacked experience, resulting in instances where refugee status was denied due to applicants failing to meet arbitrary formal requirements, often without thorough evaluation of their claims. Furthermore, authorities have been offering different treatments based on location. The problem is given by the fact that local municipalities lack administrative capacity and adequate resources to integrate arrivals. Municipalities do not do anything to challenge national immigration regimes that are increasingly marginalising Syrians and irregular migrants (Kaya A., 2023).
Asylum seekers who spent some time in Turkey have reported varying experiences with the legal procedures. A former volunteer at OCC and resident of Nea Kavala camp highlighted the disparities encountered. At the Syrian border, individuals are issued only identification documents, not asylum status. Conversely, in Istanbul, neither asylum nor identification documents are provided. Despite making multiple asylum requests, the volunteer was unsuccessful and found himself stranded in Turkey due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Another former resident volunteer, who spent a month in Turkey, received asylum seeker identification but was accommodated with his sister and father in an old school. However, he did not complete the asylum process within Turkey. Lacking social support systems, asylum seekers often opt to remain in the country informally, seeking employment to sustain themselves before attempting to migrate to the EU (two former resident volunteers, personal communication, 2023).
“Longer journeys are frequently broken up into shorter sections, interspersed with periods of informal employment during which migrants may experiment with a potential destination or subsequent stages of the journey may be planned”
(f.e. Collyer et al. 2012; Samers & Collyer, 2017).
Figure 5: Istanbul (author’s picture, August 2023)
The time asylum seekers spend in Turkey is marked by stress and anxiety, particularly as they approach the day of irregularly leaving Turkey to reach Greece (former resident volunteer, personal communication, 2023).
The true challenge for asylum seekers aiming to reach the EU arises when attempting to enter Greece, such as through the perilous Evros region, where the European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) conducts push backs against those attempting irregular entry into Greece (former resident volunteer, personal communication, 2023). However, border enforcement measures, often viewed as military defences (Van Houtum, 2010), do not halt migration but rather compel individuals to face heightened risks and dangers as they resort to unauthorised routes and rely on smugglers and traffickers (e.g., Jones, 2016; Brambilla & Jones, 2020).
While I had the privilege of flying from Istanbul to Athens in under an hour, admiring the breathtaking sea below, asylum seekers undertaking the same journey overland find themselves in vastly different circumstances: a journey that can span extended periods, marked by immobility, violence, and constant changes in their legal status. This route, typically facilitated by smugglers and often undertaken under cover of night, poses significant mortal dangers.
“I saw my friend dying while we were crossing the river Evros to enter Greece”
(former resident volunteer, personal communication, 2023).
A former resident volunteer recounted his arduous journey, spanning 23 days on foot toward Greece, followed by a perilous boat crossing of the Evros River. Similarly, another volunteer, accompanied by his father and carrying his younger sister wrapped in a blanket, also traversed the river, only to be apprehended at the Greek border and forcibly returned to Turkey, with their phones confiscated by authorities. It’s common for authorities to intercept many crossing attempts between the two countries, repatriating individuals by truck and abandoning them disoriented in remote countryside areas. Despite deportation, the former volunteer persisted, successfully crossing on a subsequent attempt. They sought refuge with a smuggler, paying around 5000 euros—the saving of a life—to facilitate their Evros crossing (two former resident volunteers, personal communication, 2023).
In the forthcoming article, I will delve into the migration landscape in Greece, with a short reflection on post-departure scenarios.
References
- Brambilla C. & Jones R. (2020). Rethinking borders, violence and conflict: From sovereign power to borderscapes as sites of struggles. Society and Space. Vol.38 (2) 287-305.
- Collyer M. & Samers M. (2017). Migration: Key Ideas in Geography. 2nd edition. Routledge. Taylor and Francis group London & New York.
- Kaya A. (2023). The World’s Leading Refugee Host, turkey has a Complex Migration History. MPI. Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved from https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/turkey-migration-history
- Papadopoulou-Kourkoula, A. (2008). Being in Transit. In: Transit Migration. Migration, Minorities and Citizenship. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230583801_4
- UNHCR (2022). Turkey. UNHCR. The UN Refugee Agency.
- Van Houtum H. (2010). The Janus-face. On the ontology of the borders and b/ordering. Beyond the horizon.
